Reducing parasitic capacitance and coupling to inductive coupler modes

ABSTRACT

A qubit coupling device includes: a dielectric substrate including a trench; a first superconductor layer on a surface of the dielectric substrate where an edge of the first superconductor layer extends along a first direction and at least a portion of the superconductor layer is in contact with the surface of the dielectric substrate, and where the superconductor layer is formed from a superconductor material exhibiting superconductor properties at or below a corresponding critical temperature; a length of the trench within the dielectric substrate is adjacent to and extends along an edge of the first superconductor layer in the first direction, and where the electric permittivity of the trench is less than the electric permittivity of the dielectric substrate.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation application of, and claims priorityto, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/473,779, filed Jun. 26, 2019,which is a national stage application under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of PCTInternational Application No. PCT/US2017/066567, filed on Dec. 15, 2017,which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 62/440,172, filed Dec. 29, 2016. The contents ofthe foregoing applications are hereby incorporated by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates to reducing parasitic capacitance andcoupling to inductive coupler modes.

BACKGROUND

Quantum computing is a relatively new computing method that takesadvantage of quantum effects, such as superposition of basis states andentanglement to perform certain computations more efficiently than aclassical digital computer. In contrast to a digital computer, whichstores and manipulates information in the form of bits (e.g., a “1” or“0”), quantum computing systems can manipulate information using qubits.A qubit can refer to a quantum device that enables the superposition ofmultiple states (e.g., data in both the “0” and “1” state) and/or to thesuperposition of data, itself, in the multiple states. In accordancewith conventional terminology, the superposition of a “0” and “1” statein a quantum system may be represented, e.g., as a |0>+β|1>. The “0” and“1” states of a digital computer are analogous to the |0> and |1> basisstates, respectively of a qubit. The value |α|² represents theprobability that a qubit is in |0> state, whereas the value |β|²represents the probability that a qubit is in the |1> basis state.

SUMMARY

The subject matter of the present disclosure relates to techniques forreducing parasitic capacitance and coupling to coupler modes.

In general, an innovative aspect of the subject matter described hereincan be embodied in a qubit coupling device, where the qubit couplingdevice includes a dielectric substrate having trench and a firstsuperconductor layer on a surface of the dielectric substrate, where anedge of the first superconductor layer extends along a first directionon the surface of the dielectric substrate. At least a portion of thesuperconductor layer is in contact with the surface of the dielectricsubstrate. The superconductor layer is formed from a superconductormaterial which exhibits superconducting properties at or below acorresponding critical temperature. A length of the trench within thedielectric substrate is adjacent to and extends along the edge of thefirst superconductor layer in the first direction. Additionally, thetrench has an electric permittivity that is less than an electricpermittivity of the dielectric substrate.

In some implementations, a width of the trench extends to the edge ofthe superconductor layer, without extending underneath the firstsuperconductor layer. The width of the trench can at least partiallyextend or entirely extend underneath the first superconductor layer.

In some implementations, the substrate includes one or more pillarswithin the trench and supporting the first superconductor layer.

The superconductor layer may form part of an inductive or capacitivecoupler or part of a qubit, among other components of a quantumcomputing circuit device. In some implementations, the qubit couplingdevice includes at least an adjustable coupler network and at least onecoupler control line. In some implementations, the qubit coupling deviceis coupled to a qubit device, the qubit device including a secondsuperconductor layer on the surface of the dielectric substrate, whereat least a portion of the second superconductor layer is in contact withthe surface of the dielectric substrate and includes the superconductormaterial. The qubit device can be, for example, a gmon qubit, an xmonqubit, or a flux qubit.

A trench adjacent to a superconductor layer may have many formsincluding: a trench whose walls are adjacent to the superconductorlayer. Another trench may include undercutting of the superconductorlayer, such that the trench is at least partially underneath thesuperconductor layer. A third instance of a trench may involveundercutting the superconductor layer fully such that a part of thesuperconductor layer is floating between pillars to the dielectricsubstrate.

In some implementations, a trench adjacent to two superconductor layersmay be at least as deep at two superconductor layers are apart. Forexample, for two parallel superconductor strips with a 2-micronseparation, the depth of a trench in the dielectric substrate locatedbetween the two parallel superconductor strips would be at least 2microns deep.

In general, in some aspects, the subject matter of the presentdisclosure may be embodied in methods for fabricating a qubit couplingdevice including providing a dielectric substrate, depositing a firstsuperconductor layer on a surface of the dielectric substrate where anedge of the first superconductor layer extends along a first directionand where at least a portion of the first superconductor layer is incontact with the surface of the dielectric substrate and includes asuperconductor material that exhibits superconductor properties at orbelow a corresponding critical temperature. A trench is etched withinthe dielectric substrate, where a length of the trench within thedielectric substrate is adjacent to and extends along the edge of thefirst superconductor layer in the first direction, and an electricpermittivity of the trench is less than an electric permittivity of thedielectric substrate.

In some implementations, etching the trench includes performing ananisotropic etch of the dielectric substrate.

In some implementations, etching the trench includes patterning thefirst superconductor layer to include one or more holes that extend froma top surface of the superconductor layer to the dielectric substrate,exposing the qubit coupling device to an etchant such that the etchantetches the dielectric substrate through the one or more holes, andremoving the etchant to leave multiple pillars in the dielectricsubstrate that support the first superconductor layer.

Particular embodiments of the subject matter described in thisspecification can be implemented so as to realize one or more of thefollowing advantages. By forming trenches within the dielectricsubstrate and adjacent to and/or underneath the superconductor layer,the effective dielectric constant of the region may be reducedsignificantly. For example, in some implementations, the effectivedielectric constant of the region may be reduced by a factor of up toabout 6.2 in the case of a trench formed within a silicon wafer. In someimplementations, in order to achieve a full factor of 6.2 reduction ofthe effective dielectric constant in the region, a trench may be formedentirely underneath the superconductor layers, with the exception of theends of the superconductor layers that are supported by the substrate,would need to be removed. By reducing the effective dielectric constant,the parasitic capacitance may be reduced in kind, by a factor of 6.2.The reduction in parasitic capacitance may cause a shift in in thefrequency of the parasitic modes to frequencies further away from thetransition frequency of a qubit device.

The technique described herein may be implemented for various quantumcomputing devices including gmon qubits coupled to tunable inductivecoupling networks, where it can suppress parasitic modes betweentransmission lines located in an inductance coupling network and thequbit. Furthermore, adding trenches adjacent and/or underneath thesuperconductor layers will reduce the effective permittivity of theregion (due to the trench having a lower dielectric constant than thedielectric substrate) while maintaining the same magnetic permeabilityof the region (due to the dielectric substrate and vacuum having thesame permeability). Adding trenches adjacent to and/or underneath thesuperconductor layers thus may minimize the capacitance while providingthe same inductance per unit length. This feature will create additionalflexibility for novel design parameters and layouts (e.g., deviceproximity and sizes). For example, by reducing parasitic capacitance by6.2×, a coplanar waveguide can be increased in length by 2.5× whileremaining at the same frequency, potentially creating additionalphysical space for 2.5× more qubits. Furthermore, reducing the parasiticcapacitance may reduce the sensitivity of the coherence times of a qubit(e.g., a fluxmon qubit) to flux noise, while keeping other parameters ofthe qubit constant. Additionally, the transmission lines may havereduced defect densities and may additionally have lower backgrounddissipation levels. The technique described herein may also be appliedto xmon qubits and flux qubits.

The details of one or more embodiments of the subject matter describedin this specification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and thedescription below. Other features, aspects, and advantages of thesubject matter will become apparent from the description, the drawings,and the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-D are schematics that illustrate various top view andcross-sectional views of exemplary trenches adjacent to superconductorlayers on dielectric substrates.

FIGS. 2A-D are schematics that illustrate different views of anexemplary floating superconductor layer.

FIGS. 3A and 3B are flow diagrams of exemplary processes for fabricatingtrenches and floating superconductor layers, respectively.

FIG. 4A is a schematic that illustrates an exemplary layout of a Gmoncoupler including two Gmon qubits and a tunable coupler network.

FIG. 4B is a schematic that illustrates the tunable coupler network ofFIG. 4B.

FIGS. 5A and 5B depict a simulated layout of trenches and a plot ofsimulation results depicting improvements in capacitance/length onvarious trench configurations, respectively.

Like reference numbers and designations in the various drawings indicatelike elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Quantum computing entails coherently processing quantum informationstored in the quantum bits (qubits) of a quantum computer.Superconductor quantum computing is a promising implementation ofquantum computing technology in which quantum computing circuit elementsare formed, in part, from superconductor materials. Superconductorquantum computers are typically multilevel systems, in which only thefirst two levels are used as the computational basis. In certainimplementations, quantum computing circuit elements, such as qubits, areoperated at very low temperatures so that superconductivity can beachieved and so that thermal fluctuations do not cause transitionsbetween energy levels. Additionally, it may be preferable that thequantum computing circuit elements are operated with low energy loss anddissipation (e.g., the quantum computing circuit elements exhibit a highquality factor, Q). Low energy loss and dissipation may help to avoid,e.g., quantum decoherence.

Fabrication of integrated quantum computing circuit elements withsuperconductor components typically involves depositing and patterningsuperconductor materials, dielectrics and metal layers. Superconductormaterial may be used to form various quantum computing circuit elementsand components such as, e.g., Josephson junctions, superconductorco-planar waveguides, quantum LC oscillators, qubits (e.g., flux qubitsor charge qubits), superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)(e.g., RF-SQUID or DC-SQUID), inductors, capacitors, transmission lines,ground planes, among others.

In some implementations, quantum computing circuit elements may exhibita parasitic capacitance that causes coupling of qubit devices toundesired parasitic modes. In particular, in certain cases, theparasitic capacitance may give rise to one or more modes that operate atfrequencies near the transition frequency of a qubit device, such thatthe qubit device, when excited, couples to the parasitic modes, leadingto decoherence. A Gmon coupler is an example of quantum computingcircuit element that may, in some implementations, lead to coupling ofqubit devices to unwanted parasitic modes. A Gmon coupler may beunderstood to include at least two qubit devices that are coupledthrough a tunable coupling network. The Gmon coupler may have a planararchitecture in which a patterned superconductor layer on a dielectricsubstrate forms the qubit devices and coupling network. The couplingnetwork, in particular, may be formed from a superconductor line havinga junction that acts as a tunable inductor to control the couplingstrength between the qubit devices. An exemplary Gmon coupler may beoperated as follows: a first qubit device (Q1) of the Gmon coupler isexcited; the frequency of the Q1 then is varied while the frequency ofthe second qubit device (Q2) is fixed until a resonance interactionoccurs and the excited state from Q1 is coupled to Q2. In someimplementations, the coupler network exhibits parasitic modes to whichthe excited qubit couples instead of the other qubit device. Theparasitic modes of the coupler network may be near the |0>−|2>transition frequency of the qubit devices, e.g., near a frequency ofabout 12 GHz at zero bias. In some implementations, qubits in theirground state |0> are excited into the parasitic modes by one or morecouplers in a coupler network. The parasitic coupler modes may beexcited due to external couplings from the control lines for the couplernetwork. While the parasitic coupling is described above with respect toGmon couplers, such parasitic coupling may occur in other types of qubitdevices (e.g., Xmon qubits, Fluxmon qubits, transmon qubits, amongothers) and other types of qubit couplers.

The present disclosure relates to reducing parasitic capacitance andcoupling to undesired parasitic modes of circuit elements by reducingthe electric permittivity in an area adjacent to the circuit element.For example, to reduce the electric permittivity, trenches may be formedin a dielectric substrate adjacent to the circuit element. The trenchesmay have an electric permittivity that is lower (e.g., substantiallylower) than the permittivity of the dielectric that the trench replaces.As result, the parasitic capacitance of the circuit element may bereduced in kind. A reduction in parasitic capacitance may lead to ashift in the frequency of the parasitic modes away from the resonantfrequency of the qubit devices. Shifting the frequency of the parasiticmodes away from the resonant frequency of the qubit devices may reducethe likelihood of unwanted coupling to the parasitic modes, andtherefore reduce the probability of qubit decoherence.

The different trenches and fabrication techniques described herein maybe utilized in a variety of configurations for various quantum computingcircuit elements, and the discussed exemplary structures discussedherein do not represent the full extent of implementations possible.

FIGS. 1A-1D are schematics that illustrate a top view and differentpossible cross-sectional views of exemplary structures for reducingparasitic capacitance in quantum computing circuit elements. Thestructures shown in FIGS. 1A-1D include a layer of superconductormaterial 102 formed on the surface of a dielectric substrate 104. Thesuperconductor material 102 and, in some cases, the substrate 104 mayform part or all of a quantum computing circuit element, such as a qubitdevice (e.g., a fluxmon qubit, a gmon qubit, an xmon qubit or otherqubit device), a Josephson junction, a quantum LC oscillator, a SQUID,or a co-planar waveguide, among other circuit elements.

The superconductor layers 102 depicted in FIGS. 1A-1D (and FIGS. 2A-2D)may be co-deposited structures, deposited in separate steps, depositedin a single layer and post-processed to fabricate separate structures,and so on. Each of FIGS. 1B-1D depicts a different possibleconfiguration of a trench region that is formed within the dielectricsubstrate 104 and adjacent to the superconductor layer 102, in which thetrench region has a relative electric permittivity lower than (e.g.,substantially lower than) the relative electric permittivity of thesubstrate 104. For example, the trench regions may be constituted of,e.g., vacuum or air. Typical vacuum conditions (e.g., ultra-high vacuum(UHV) conditions) can include pressures below approximately 10⁻⁹ Torr.The presence of the trench region having a lower relative electricpermittivity adjacent to the superconductor layer 102 may, in someimplementations, reduce the parasitic capacitance exhibited by thequantum computing circuit element to which the superconductor layer 102belongs.

FIG. 1A is a schematic 100 illustrating a top view of superconductorlayers 102-1, 102-2, and 102-3 on a dielectric substrate 104.Superconductor layer 102-1 is separated from superconductor layer 102-2by a first distance 108-1. The superconductor layer 102-2 is separatedfrom the superconductor layer 102-3 by a second distance 108-2. A firsttrench 106-1 is formed in the region between and adjacent tosuperconductor layer 102-1 and superconductor layer 102-2. A secondtrench 106-2 is formed in the region between and adjacent tosuperconductor layer 102-2 and superconductor layer 102-3.

FIG. 1B is a schematic 110 illustrating a cross-sectional view of thesuperconductor layers 102-1, 102-2, and 102-3 depicted in FIG. 1A alonga cross-section line A-A, according to a first configuration of thetrenches 106-1 and 106-2. In this configuration, the first and secondtrenches, 106-1 and 106-2, are located adjacent to superconductor layers102 and have widths 108-1 and 108-2, respectively. That is, the width ofthe first trench 106-1 is substantially the same as the first distance108-1 between the superconductor layer 102-1 and superconductor layer102-2. the width of second trench 106-2 is substantially the same as thesecond distance 108-2 between the superconductor layer 102-2 andsuperconductor layer 102-3. For each trench, the width of the trenchextends to a plane that is co-planar with the edges of thesuperconductor layers 102, without extending underneath thesuperconductor layers 102. Each trench 106-1 and 106-2 has a depth 112.As depicted in FIG. 1B, depth 112 extends into the dielectric substratefrom a plane that is co-planar with the bottom surface of asuperconductor layers 102. Although trenches 106-1 and 106-2 aredepicted in FIG. 1B as having the same depth 112, in someimplementations, the trenches may have different depths. In someimplementations, a trench depth may be established by the amount of adielectric substrate that is removed by an etching process, which willbe discussed in more detail with reference to FIGS. 3A and 3B below.

FIG. 1C is a schematic 120 illustrating a cross-sectional view of thesuperconductor layers 102-1, 102-2, and 102-3 along a cross-section A ofFIG. 1A according to a second different configuration. In the secondconfiguration, the first and second trenches, 114-1 and 114-2 havewidths 116-1 and 116-2, respectively, and a trench depth of 112. Again,first trench 114-1 is located adjacent to superconductor layers 102-1and 102-2, and second trench 114-2 is located adjacent to superconductorlayers 102-2 and 102-3. In this configuration, a portion of each offirst and second trench 114-1 and 114-2 partially extends underneath atleast one superconductor layer. For example, at least a portion of thewidth of trench 114-1 extends under superconductor layer 102-1, and atleast a portion of the width of trench 114-2 extends undersuperconductor layer 102-2. The amount that the trench width extendsunderneath the superconductor layer may vary.

FIG. 1D is a schematic 130 illustrating a cross-sectional view ofsuperconductor layers 102-1, 102-2, and 102-3 along a cross-section A ofFIG. 1A according to a third different configuration. Again, twotrenches, 122-1 and 122-2, are located adjacent to respectivesuperconductor layers. In contrast to the trenches shown in FIGS. 1B-1C,trenches 122-1 and 122-2 do not have rectangular cross-sections.Trenches 122-1 and 122-2 have varying trench widths and depths (e.g.,the width of trench 122-2 may vary from a first width 124-1 to a secondwidth 124-2). Each trench may have a depth that varies as well (e.g.,the depth of trench 122-1 may vary from a first depth 126-1 to a seconddifferent depth 126-2. In some implementations, irregular trench shapesmay be preferable for a variety of reasons including fabrication ease.For example, for some dielectric substrates (e.g., off-axis siliconwafers) the dielectric substrate will etch preferentially along aparticular crystalline orientation, such that trenches formed will haveirregular geometries that follow a crystalline orientation.

Trench widths, depths, and lengths may range in value depending on thetype of trench and the quantum computing circuit element in which thetrench is incorporated. For example, a trench may have a length betweenabout 1 micron to about 5 mm. In some implementations, the length of thetrench may extend to the same length as the adjacent circuit element towhich the trench is formed. For example, for a superconductor layerformed as a co-planar waveguide qubit coupler element, the trench mayhave a length that extends along the entire length of the co-planarwaveguide qubit coupler element (e.g., the trench may have the samelength as the co-planar waveguide qubit coupler element). A trench mayhave a width between several nanometers (e.g., 5-10 nm) to severalmicrons or several tens of microns. In some implementations, a depth ofthe trench would be of similar scale to the width of the trench, forexample, a coplanar waveguide where a width of a trench between featuresof the coplanar waveguide is 5-10 nm, a depth of the trench would alsobe on the order of 5-10 nm. Additionally, in some implementations, thetrench may have a depth of up to several hundred microns.

FIGS. 2A-D are schematics that illustrate different views of anexemplary floating superconductor layer on a dielectric substrate.

FIG. 2A is a schematic 200 illustrating a top view of superconductorlayers 202-1, 202-2, and 202-3 over a dielectric substrate 204. A trench206 within the dielectric substrate 204 is located adjacent tosuperconductor layers 202-1, 202-2, and 202-3. In this schematic, thewidth 208 of the trench 206 extends to a plane that is co-planar withthe edges of the superconductor layers 202-1 and 202-3. Additionally,trench 206 extends fully underneath superconductor layer 202-2, suchthat portions of the superconductor layer 202-2 are floating between twopillars 210-1 and 210-2. In some implementations, pillars are portionsof the dielectric substrate 204 that have not been removed to form thetrench 206. In some implementations, a superconductor layer may haveone, two or more pillars 210 between a bottom surface of thesuperconductor layer and the dielectric substrate 204.

FIG. 2B illustrates a cross-sectional view of sample 200 along line A-Aof FIG. 2A. FIG. 2C illustrates a cross-sectional view of sample 200along line B-B of FIG. 2A.

As shown in FIG. 2B, trench 206 has a width 208 and extends entirelybeneath superconductor layer 202-2. In this schematic, the width 208 ofthe trench 206 extends to a plane that is co-planar with the edges ofsuperconductor layer 202-1 and 202-3, without extending underneath thesuperconductor layers 202-1 and 202-3. As depicted, the superconductorlayer 202-2 is at least partially floating over the trench 206 atcross-section A. A pillar 210 is depicted by dashed lines, and is withinthe plane along the Z-axis of FIG. 2B. Trench 206 has a depth 212 withindielectric substrate 204. In some implementations, the depth 112 extendsinto the dielectric substrate from a plane that is co-planar with thebottom surface of a superconductor layer 202. In some implementations, atrench depth may be established by the amount of a dielectric substratethat is removed by an etching process, which will be discussed in moredetail with reference to FIGS. 3A and 3B below.

FIG. 2C is a schematic 240 illustrating a cross-sectional view of thesuperconductor layer 202-2 depicted in FIG. 2A along a cross-sectionB-B. Schematic 240 depicts superconductor layer 202-2 along a length 216of the superconductor layer 202-2, such that two pillars 210-1 and 210-2are visible. Length 216 may range from 100 nm to several 100 microns(e.g., 120 microns), depending on the quantum circuit element thatincludes the superconductor layer. Pillars 210-1 and 210-2 are separatedby a distance 214. In some implementations, two or more pillars havedistances between the pillars that is periodic or random. Additionally,pillars may be of a variety of geometric or irregular shapes, and neednot be all identical. For instance, pillars may have a cylindricalshape, a cube-like shape, or a rectangular prism shape, among othershapes.

In some implementations, a separation between pillars may range from afew microns to several hundred microns. Additionally, the pillars mayrange in dimensions. Pillars may have a height defined as extending froma top surface (e.g., floor) of the trench and extending to a bottomsurface of the superconductor layer. Pillars may have one or moreadditional dimensions (e.g., width, length, or diameter) extending alonga plane orthogonal to the height, wherein the size of the one or moredimensions that extend along the plane orthogonal to the height may bebetween tens of nanometers to several microns. Trench dimensions (e.g.,length, width, and depth) in a floating layer configuration may besimilar to the trench dimensions discussed above with reference to FIGS.1A-D. In some implementations one or more of the trench dimensions(e.g., length, width, and depth) may be selected based on one or moredimensions (e.g., length or width) of the quantum computing circuitelement (e.g., a coplanar waveguide) adjacent to which the trench isincorporated.

As described herein, pillars are portions of the substrate that are notremoved and that support the superconductor layer. A process for formingpillars is described in further detail below with reference to FIG. 3B.

FIG. 2D is a schematic 260 illustrating a perspective view ofsuperconductor layers 202-1 and 202-2 depicted in FIG. 2A. Schematic 260depicts the partially floating superconductor layer 202-2 with pillars210-1 and 210-2 that are separated by a distance 214. Pillars 210-1 and210-2 support superconductor layer 202-2 and may, in someimplementations, be formed from the dielectric substrate 204. Pillarshave a height 212, which may be equal to the height of the trench 206.The distance 214 between pillars may be variable, periodic or random.Pillars are depicted in FIGS. 2A-2D as columnar, but may be of variousgeometric or irregular shapes and need not be all identical.

In some implementations, some or all of the above-mentioned features(e.g., a trench adjacent to a superconductor layer, a trench partiallyunderneath a superconductor layer, a partially floating superconductorlayer) may be part of a quantum computing circuity element including aqubit coupling device.

Trench Fabrication

A variety of fabrication processes may be used to fabricate trenches ina dielectric substrate adjacent to a superconductor layer on top of thesubstrate including, e.g., dry chemical etch (such as a gas phaseetching with or without plasma), wet etching, physical etching (such asinductively coupled plasma etch or ion-beam milling), physical-chemicaletching (such as reactive ion-beam etching or chemically-assistedion-beam etching), or combinations thereof.

Certain fabrication processes may be preferable to others depending onthe size of the trench and the materials of the superconductor layer anddielectric substrate. For example, SF₆/O₂ is an anisotropic etchant ofsilicon for an aluminum superconductor layer deposited on a silicondielectric substrate. SF₆/O₂ may also be used as an etchant fordifferent dielectric and/or superconductor layer materials (e.g.,sapphire, niobium-titanium).

Additionally, some fabrication processes and/or trenches may lead todecreased performance of one or more quantum circuit elements due todecoherence induced by the fabrication process and/or trenches. Forexample, one factor leading to decoherence of a qubit is flux noise. Insome implementations, flux noise may result from the exposure ofadditional surfaces of a superconductor layer in a quantum circuitelement during fabrication to environmental contaminants (e.g., oxygen).As result, trenches adjacent to a superconductor layer included in aqubit device may be only adjacent to (but not underneath) thesuperconductor layer.

FIG. 3A is a flow-diagram of an exemplary process 30 for forming thestructures illustrated in FIGS. 1B. A dielectric substrate such assilicon or sapphire is provided (302) and a first superconductor layeris deposited and patterned on a surface of the dielectric substrate(304). A superconductor layer may include aluminum, niobium-titanium, orother materials or alloys having superconducting properties below acritical temperature. Superconductor layers may be deposited directlyonto the dielectric substrate, deposited through one or more masks,post-processed in separate etching processes or the like. Asuperconductor layer may have a planar geometry (e.g., a trace, a loop,parallel traces, or squares) and form part or all of one or more devices(e.g., coplanar waveguide, a qubit device, a qubit coupler, among otherdevices). An etching process is performed to etch one or more trencheswithin the dielectric substrate and adjacent to one or moresuperconductor layers (306). To form the trench structure shown in FIG.1B, in which the trench sidewalls do not extend underneath thesuperconductor layers, an anisotropic etching process may be selected.Furthermore, the superconductor may serve as an etch mask to protectportions of the substrate beneath the superconductor layer from beingetched. For example, for an aluminum superconductor layer on a siliconsubstrate, a dry etch ICP of a ratio of SF₆:O₂ at 500 W may be used tofabricate adjacent trenches in the silicon substrate to superconductorlayers with little to no undercutting of the superconductor layer.Oxygen (O₂) may be used to prevent undercutting of the superconductorlayer with 02 pressures ranging in a few Pascal. In some implementationsa ratio of 2:1 for the SF₆:O₂ is used in the etching process. In someimplementations, an etch rate is approximately 110 nm/min, but may varydepending on process parameters. Additionally, the substrate may bebiased (e.g., at 50 W) during the etching process.

FIG. 3B is a schematic that illustrates a flow-diagram of an exemplaryprocess 350 for forming the structures illustrated in FIG. 1C or inFIGS. 2A-2D. A dielectric substrate such as silicon or sapphire isprovided (352) and a first superconductor layer is deposited on asurface of the dielectric substrate (354). A first, anisotropic etchingprocess is performed to etch one or more trenches within the dielectricsubstrate and adjacent to a first superconductor layer (356). Followingthe formation of a trench within the dielectric substrate and adjacentto the superconductor layer, a second, isotropic etching process isperformed (358). For example, for an aluminum superconductor layer withone or more adjacent trenches within a silicon substrate, a plasmalessdry etch of XeF₂ may be used to release the superconductor layer fromthe substrate. The XeF₂ etch is an isotropic etchant for silicon, and ishighly selective for silicon relative to aluminum such that during thetime required to remove the silicon to form a trench according to thepresent disclosure, the aluminum layer is effectively etched verylittle. Rather, the aluminum layer acts as a mask for the etching ofsilicon. The second, isotropic etching process may be further used toextend the trench such that a portion of the trench is underneath thesuperconductor layer. The degree to which the trench is extendedunderneath the superconductor layer may vary, as depicted in FIGS. 1Cand 1D. The isotropic etching process may continue such that the trenchis entirely underneath the superconductor layer for at least a portionof the superconductor layer, forming a floating superconductor layer(360). The floating superconductor layer includes one or more pillars,as depicted in FIGS. 2A-2D.

In some implementations, the XeF₂ etching step is isotropic and may etch(albeit at a slower rate) the superconductor layer as well as thedielectric substrate, such that as the XeF₂ undercuts the superconductorlayer it also will etch part of the superconductor layer. Designaccommodations (e.g., biasing the superconductor layer such that it isthe desired dimensions post-etch) may be implemented to compensate forthe isotropic etch.

In some implementations, one or more masks may be deposited over thesuperconductor layer prior to the one or more etching processes. The oneor more masks may be used to prevent etching of trenches or undercuttingof particular superconductor layers or portions of superconductor layersin particular regions of a substrate. For example, for a qubit deviceadjacent to an inductive coupling device, it may be desired to etchtrenches adjacent to the superconductor layers forming the inductivecoupling device and not the qubit device. A mask (e.g., a pattern resistmask layer) may be utilized to selectively expose the dielectricsubstrate adjacent to the superconductor layers forming the inductivecouple device such that only the exposed areas are etched. In anotherexample, a mask may be utilized between the one or more etchingprocesses such that only certain trenches fabricated in firstanisotropic etching process are additionally etched by a secondanisotropic etching process.

In some implementations, the pillars that support the floatingsuperconductor layer may be formed as follows. In a first step, thedielectric substrate having a patterned superconductor layer isprovided. For example, the superconductor layer may have been etched toform a square, trace or other pattern. The superconductor layer also mayhave been patterned to include one or more openings or holes within thesuperconductor layer. The openings or holes may extend from a topsurface of the superconductor layer through the superconductor layerthickness to the dielectric substrate. When multiple openings or holesare provided, the openings or holes may be periodically spaced apartfrom one another by a fixed distance. The substrate having the patternedsuperconductor layer then may be exposed to an etchant, such as XeF₂,that passes through the openings or holes and etches the underlyingsubstrate. The etch process may be timed such that, although asubstantial portion of the underlying substrate is etched, pillarsremain that continue to support the superconductor layer.

Processes 300 and 350 should be taken as two of many differentfabrication processes possible for forming trenches, and should notlimit the full scope of fabrication techniques possible for fabricatingthe trenches described in reference to FIGS. 1A-D and 2A-D.

Trenches implemented in different quantum circuit element (e.g., qubitcoupler elements, qubit devices, among other quantum circuit elements),may require different optimal trenches and fabrication processes. Forexample, for a quantum circuit element having relatively wide (e.g., ˜15micron) traces, a fabrication process for etching adjacent trenches andetching underneath the superconductor trace may require additionalfabrication steps. A first step may involve etching trenches using afirst fabrication technique (e.g., dry etch ICP), where the walls of theetched trenches are perpendicular to a top surface of the superconductorlayer. A second step may require forming holes in the superconductorlayer in order to allow a second etch to evenly etch the dielectricsubstrate underneath the superconductor layer, in order to undercut thesuperconductor layer such that a substantial portion of the underlyingsubstrate is etched.

In some implementations, once a trench is fabricated, it may be filledwith a different material rather than being left as vacuum. For example,the trench may be filled with a material having low electricpermittivity (relative to the dielectric substrate) and which is alsocompatible with the fabrication processes of the quantum circuitelements. For example, silicon dioxide, or doped variants of silicondioxide (e.g., fluorine-doped silicon dioxide, carbon-doped silicondioxide) may be deposited by chemical vapor deposition. Silicon dioxidecan additionally be deposited by some electron beam evaporation orsputtering techniques, as well as by spin-on-glass techniques. Othermaterials having low electric permittivity including Teflon, which canbe deposited by chemical vapor deposition as well as spin-on methods,and various polymers (e.g., photoresist, polyimide), can be used to fillthe trench.

Various quantum computing circuit elements and components may benefitfrom one or more trenches adjacent to the superconductor layers formingthe quantum computing circuit elements. Examples of quantum computingcircuit elements include Josephson junctions, superconductor co-planarwaveguides, quantum LC oscillators, qubits (e.g., flux qubits or chargequbits), superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) (e.g.,RF-SQUID or DC10 SQUID), inductors, capacitors, transmission lines,ground planes, among others.

An example of a quantum computing circuit element may be a qubitcoupling device that includes an adjustable coupler network and one ormore coupler control lines. FIGS. 4A and 4B are schematics thatillustrate an exemplary layout of a Gmon coupler 400 including two Gmonqubits 402-1, 402-2 and a tunable coupler network 404. It may beunderstood in FIGS. 4A and 4B that areas of the figures depicted aswhite are exposed dielectric substrate and that non-white areas have atleast a superconductor layer and/or dielectric layer on the surface. Insome implementations, areas depicted as white are locations in which atrench may be fabricated using techniques discussed herein.

A Gmon coupler 400 may be understood to include at least two qubitdevices 402-1 and 402-2 that are coupled through a tunable couplernetwork 404. The Gmon coupler 400 may have a planar architecture inwhich one or more patterned superconductor layers on a dielectricsubstrate form the qubit devices and coupling network. The couplernetwork 404, in particular, may be formed from a superconductor linehaving a junction that acts as a tunable inductor to control thecoupling strength between the qubit devices 402-1, 402-2.

A description of qubit 402-2 will now be provided, though both qubits402-1, 402-2 have the same structure. Qubit 402-2 has two coplanarwaveguide control lines 406-1 and 406-2. The control lines 406-1 and406-2 include one control line for exciting states in the qubit 402-2and one control line for tuning the frequency of the qubit. Couplernetwork 404 includes two superconductor traces 408 arranged in loops.Additionally, coupler network 404 includes a coupler control line 410for tuning the inductance of the couplers 408. Each qubit device isfabricated from a superconductor layer (e.g., aluminum operating at orbelow its superconducting temperature) on top of a dielectric substrate(e.g., silicon). At least a portion of the superconductor layer of thequbit is in contact with the dielectric substrate. Though a Gmon qubitis depicted for qubits 402-1, 402-2, qubit devices 402-1 and 402-2 mayinclude qubits of different types (e.g., xmon qubits, transmon qubitsand flux qubits). Each qubit (e.g., qubit 402-2) includes superconductortraces 411 which inductively couple the qubit to the coupling network404, described in more detail with respect to FIG. 4B.

FIG. 4B is a schematic illustrating a layout of coupler 408. Asdescribed herein, areas depicted as non-white correspond to at least alayer of superconductor material and/or dielectric material (e.g.,ground plane 416 within the coupler, and traces 414 of the coupler) andareas depicted as white 412 correspond to areas in which the dielectricsubstrate is exposed, and in which a trench may be fabricated usingtechniques discussed herein. For example, a trench may be formed asdepicted in FIG. 1B in which the width of a trench extends to, but nofurther than, an edge of a superconductor layer, or as in FIG. 1C, inwhich a portion of the trench extends partially but not entirelyunderneath the adjacent superconductor layer, or as in FIG. 2A-2D, inwhich a portion of the trench extends entirely underneath the adjacentsuperconductor layer.

The inductive coupler 408 includes three traces (e.g., tracesapproximately 1.5 microns wide) 414-1, 414-2, and 414-3. In someimplementations, a width 415 of each trace relative to a distance 417between the traces is small such that each trace is close to each othertrace, and a strong (e.g., maximum) amount of inductive coupling isachieved. The qubits each include a superconductor trace 414-1 and 414-3that form loops on either side of a coupler trace 414-2 of the inductivecoupler 408 within the coupling network 404. Trace 414-2 inductivelycouples a the inductive coupler to the qubit through traces 414-1 and414-3 of the qubit. Traces 414-1, 414-2, 414-3 each form a respectiveloop 419 (e.g., a square loop as depicted in FIG. 4B). The length oftrace 414-2 for which the trace 414-2 forms a loop 419 between therespective loops formed by the two traces 414-1 and 414-3 is a lengthover which mutual inductance may occur between the qubit and theinductive coupler. Again, areas depicted as white are locations in whicha trench may be fabricated using techniques discussed herein. By formingthe trenches in those areas, it may be possible to reduce the parasiticcapacitance of the gmon coupler 400. For example, the parasiticcapacitance of the qubits 402-1, 402-2, and the coupler network 404 maybe reduced.

FIGS. 5A and 5B depict an exemplary simulated layout of trenches and aplot of simulation results depicting improvements in capacitance/lengthon various trench configurations, respectively. FIG. 5A depicts asimulated exemplary layout 500 of a dielectric substrate 502 with asuperconductor layer 504. Trench widths 506-1 and 506-2 are adjacent tosuperconductor layer 504 and have an amount of width extendingunderneath superconductor layer 504.

FIG. 5B is a plot of simulation results depicting a dependence ofcapacitance/length of a superconductor layer (e.g., a trace) on adielectric substrate on a depth into the dielectric substrate of atrench adjacent to the superconductor layer (e.g., a trace). Fourdifferent trenches are simulated using four different respectiveparameter sweeps. In the simulation plot of FIG. 5B, the superconductorlayers 504 are 1.5-micron in width and are separated from one another by1.5-micron gaps (506-1 and 506-2). The plot of FIG. 5B depictscapacitance per unit length of the superconductor layer 504, where eachcurve represents a different example of varying trench widths betweenthe superconductor layers 504 (e.g., undercut width) and/or trenchdepth. . Each curve 510, 520, 530, and 540 is indicated in FIG. 5B ascorresponding to respective x-axis (e.g., undercut width and/or depth oftrench). Curve 510 corresponds to a trench having a width that extendsup to an edge of a superconductor layer, but no further (e.g., thetrench does not extend underneath the superconductor layer (as depictedin FIG. 1B)). Curve 520 corresponds to a simulated trench having a widththat at least partially extends underneath an adjacent superconductortrace (e.g., as depicted in FIGS. 1C and 5A). Curve 530 corresponds to asimulated trench that has a fixed trench depth of 1.5 microns and avaried amount of width of the trench is underneath the superconductorlayer until the point where the superconductor layer is fully undercutsuch that the trench extends entirely underneath the superconductorlayer such that the superconductor layer is fully released and floatingon pillars (e.g., as depicted in FIGS. 2A-2D). Curve 540 was produced bysimulating a superconductor layer floating on top of a dielectricsubstrate surface rather than on a dielectric surface in which a trenchis formed, wherein the trench depth is simulated as a distance betweenthe superconductor layer and the dielectric substrate surface. Thedashed line 550 highlights a same result for two different parametersweeps for curves 510 and 530, such that the crossover point betweendashed line 530 and curve 510 and the crossover point between dashedline 550 and curve 530 represent a same simulated structure including1.5 micron trench depth and no undercut of the superconductor layer.

Curve 510 reaches a roll-over 552 point near a trench depth that issimilar to the trench width (˜1.5 microns). Curve 530 additionally showsa greater reduction in capacitance/length over curve 510, suggestingthat undercutting the superconductor layer further reduces the parasiticcapacitance effects.

For the purposes of this disclosure, a superconducting (alternatively“superconductor”) material can be understood as material that exhibitssuperconducting properties at or believe a superconducting criticaltemperature. Examples of superconductor material include aluminum(superconductive critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin) and niobium(superconducting critical temperature of 9.3 kelvin).

Additionally, for the purposes of this disclosure, a dielectricsubstrate or a dielectric material can be understood as material that isan electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electricfield. Examples of dielectric substrates include silicon (bulkdielectric constant of 11.7) and sapphire (bulk dielectric constant of11.5).

An example of a superconductor material that can be used in theformation of quantum computing circuit elements is aluminum. Aluminummay be used in combination with a dielectric to establish Josephsonjunctions, which are a common component of quantum computing circuitelements. Examples of quantum computing circuit elements that may beformed with aluminum include circuit elements such as superconductorco-planar waveguides, quantum LC oscillators, qubits (e.g., flux qubitsor charge qubits), superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)(e.g., RF-SQUID or DC-SQUID), inductors, capacitors, transmission lines,ground planes, among others.

Aluminum may also be used in the formation of superconductor classicalcircuit elements that are interoperable with superconductor quantumcomputing circuit elements as well as other classical circuit elementsbased on complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) circuity.Examples of classical circuit elements that may be formed with aluminuminclude rapid single flux quantum (RSFQ) devices, reciprocal quantumlogic (RQL) devices and ERSFQ devices, which are an energy-efficientversion of RSFQ that does not use bias resistors. Other classicalcircuit elements may be formed with aluminum as well. The classicalcircuit elements may be configured to collectively carry outinstructions of a computer program by performing basic arithmetical,logical, and/or input/output operations on data, in which the data isrepresented in analog or digital form.

Processes described herein may entail the deposition of one or morematerials, such as superconductors, dielectrics and/or metals. Dependingon the selected material, these materials may be deposited usingdeposition processes such as chemical vapor deposition, physical vapordeposition (e.g., evaporation or sputtering), or epitaxial techniques,among other deposition processes. Processes described herein may alsoentail the removal of one or more materials from a device duringfabrication. Depending on the material to be removed, the removalprocess may include, e.g., wet etching techniques, dry etchingtechniques, or lift-off processes.

Implementations of the quantum subject matter and quantum operationsdescribed in this specification may be implemented in suitable quantumcircuitry or, more generally, quantum computational systems, includingthe structures disclosed in this specification and their structuralequivalents, or in combinations of one or more of them. The term“quantum computational systems” may include, but is not limited to,quantum computers, quantum information processing systems, quantumcryptography systems, or quantum simulators.

The terms quantum information and quantum data refer to information ordata that is carried by, held or stored in quantum systems, where thesmallest non-trivial system is a qubit, e.g., a system that defines theunit of quantum information. It is understood that the term “qubit”encompasses all quantum systems that may be suitably approximated as atwo-level system in the corresponding context. Such quantum systems mayinclude multi-level systems, e.g., with two or more levels. By way ofexample, such systems can include atoms, electrons, photons, ions orsuperconducting qubits. In many implementations the computational basisstates are identified with the ground and first excited states, howeverit is understood that other setups where the computational states areidentified with higher level excited states are possible. It isunderstood that quantum memories are devices that can store quantum datafor a long time with high fidelity and efficiency, e.g., light-matterinterfaces where light is used for transmission and matter for storingand preserving the quantum features of quantum data such assuperposition or quantum coherence.

Quantum computing circuit elements may be used to perform quantumprocessing operations. That is, the quantum computing circuit elementsmay be configured to make use of quantum-mechanical phenomena, such assuperposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data in anon-deterministic manner. Certain quantum computing circuit elements,such as qubits, may be configured to represent and operate oninformation in more than one state simultaneously. Examples ofsuperconducting quantum computing circuit elements that may be formedwith the processes disclosed herein include circuit elements such asco-planar waveguides, quantum LC oscillators, qubits (e.g., flux qubitsor charge qubits), superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)(e.g., RF-SQUID or DC-SQUID), among others.

In contrast, classical circuit elements generally process data in adeterministic manner. Classical circuit elements may be configured tocollectively carry out instructions of a computer program by performingbasic arithmetical, logical, and/or input/output operations on data, inwhich the data is represented in analog or digital form. In someimplementations, classical circuit elements may be used to transmit datato and/or receive data from the quantum computing circuit elementsthrough electrical or electromagnetic connections. Examples of classicalcircuit elements that may be formed with the processes disclosed hereininclude rapid single flux quantum (RSFQ) devices, reciprocal quantumlogic (RQL) devices and ERSFQ devices, which are an energy-efficientversion of RSFQ that does not use bias resistors. Other classicalcircuit elements may be formed with the processes disclosed herein aswell.

During operation of a quantum computational system that usessuperconducting quantum computing circuit elements and/orsuperconducting classical circuit elements, such as the circuit elementsdescribed herein, the superconducting circuit elements are cooled downwithin a cryostat to temperatures that allow a superconducting materialto exhibit superconducting properties.

While this specification contains many specific implementation details,these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of what may beclaimed, but rather as descriptions of features that may be specific toparticular implementations. Certain features that are described in thisspecification in the context of separate implementations can also beimplemented in combination in a single implementation. Conversely,various features that are described in the context of a singleimplementation can also be implemented in multiple implementationsseparately or in any suitable sub-combination. Moreover, althoughfeatures may be described above as acting in certain combinations andeven initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimedcombination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and theclaimed combination may be directed to a sub-combination or variation ofa sub-combination.

Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particularorder, this should not be understood as requiring that such operationsbe performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, orthat all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirableresults. For example, the actions recited in the claims can be performedin a different order and still achieve desirable results. In certaincircumstances, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous.Moreover, the separation of various components in the implementationsdescribed above should not be understood as requiring such separation inall implementations.

A number of implementations have been described. Nevertheless, it willbe understood that various modifications may be made without departingfrom the spirit and scope of the invention. Other implementations arewithin the scope of the following claims.

1. A qubit coupling device comprising: a dielectric substrate comprisinga surface and a trench extending from the surface into the dielectricsubstrate; and a first superconductor layer on the surface of thedielectric substrate, wherein an edge of the first superconductor layeris adjacent to the trench, wherein at least a portion of thesuperconductor layer is in contact with the surface of the dielectricsubstrate, and wherein the superconductor layer is formed from asuperconductor material that exhibits superconductor properties at orbelow a corresponding critical temperature, and wherein an electricpermittivity of the trench is less than an electric permittivity of thedielectric substrate.
 2. The qubit coupling device of claim 1, furthercomprising: a second superconductor layer on the surface of thedielectric substrate, wherein at least a portion of the secondsuperconductor layer is in contact with the surface of the dielectricsubstrate, and wherein the edge of the second superconductor layerextends over the trench.
 3. The qubit coupling device of claim 2,wherein the second superconductor layer comprises at least a portion ofa qubit coupler.
 4. The qubit coupling device of claim 1, wherein thefirst superconductor layer comprises at least a portion of a qubitdevice.
 5. The qubit coupling device of claim 1, wherein a depth of thetrench extends into the dielectric substrate from a plane that isco-planar with a bottom surface of the first superconductor layer. 6.The qubit coupling device of claim 1, wherein the first superconductorlayer comprises at least a portion of a capacitor.
 7. The qubit couplingdevice of claim 1, wherein the first superconductor layer comprises atleast a portion of an inductive coupler.
 8. The qubit coupling device ofclaim 1, wherein the first superconductor layer comprises at least aportion of a transmission line.
 9. The qubit coupling device of claim 1,wherein the first superconductor layer comprises at least a portion of acapacitive coupler.
 10. The qubit coupling device of claim 1, whereinthe dielectric substrate comprises one or more pillars within the trenchand the first superconductor layer is formed directly on a surface ofthe one or more pillars.